Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by different types of fungi as secondary metabolites. They form in conducive conditions of temperature and moisture. The most extensively studied mycotoxins are those produced by the molds Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium and Claviceps. Over 900 mycotoxins are currently known, and their number continues to rise. Mycotoxins form in conducive conditions of temperature and moisture. Mycotoxins are thermostable and grow on crops (‘field mycotoxins’) or during storage (‘storage mycotoxins’). ‘Modified‘ or ‘masked/hidden‘ mycotoxins are metabolites of the parent mycotoxin formed in the plant , e.g. by conjugation with polar compounds as a result of plant metabolism. Hidden forms can be disrupted upon digestion, leading to the release of the unchanged parent forms in the gastrointestinal tract.
Mycotoxin
Fungi (main)
Type
FUMONISINS B1+B2
F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum
Field
DEOXYNIVALENOL (DON)+ D3G*, 15Ac-DON*
F. graminearum, F. culmorum
ZEARALENONE (ZEN)+ αZELG*, ZEN14G*
F. graminearum, F. culmorum, F. crookwellense
BEAUVERICIN (BEA)
Beaveria bassiana Fusarium spp.
ENNIATINS (ENN)
F. avenaceum, F. tricinctum, F. equiseti
MONILIFORMIN (MON)
F. proliferatum
* examples of masked / modified mycotoxins
Mycotoxin
Fungi
Type
AFLATOXINS
A. flavus, A. parasiticus
Field Storage
ALTERNARIA TOXINS
Alternaria
OCHRATOXIN A (OTA)+ α-OTA*
A. ochraceus, A. carbonarius, A. niger, A. westerdijkiae, A. steynii, P. verrucosum
Storage
PATULIN
Penicillium, Aspergillus
CITRININ
Penicillium, Aspergillus and Monascus
ERGOT ALKALOIDS
Claviceps
* examples of masked / modified mycotoxins
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EFSA, “Explains risk assessment: Acrylamide in food”, June 2015 EFSA CONTAM, “Scientific Opinion on acrylamide in food”, June 2015 Sum of Us, “Acrylamide levels in food: Passing the hot potato”, November 2016 European Commission, “Regulation (EU) 2017/2158: mitigation measures and benchmark levels for the reduction of the presence of acrylamide in foods”, November 2017 European Commission, “RASFF – Food and Feed Safety Alerts”, [website] Specific analysis by Mérieux NutriSciences (Safety HUD) Food Drink Europe, “Toolbox 2013”, December 2013 European Commission, “Commission Recommendation 2010/307/EU”, June 2010 European Commission, “Commission recommendation on investigations into the levels of acrylamide in food 2013/647/EU”, November 2013 Food Drink Europe, 15th edition of industry wide Acrylamide Toolbox, March 2019 European Commission, “Commission Recommendation (EU) 2019/1888 of 7 November 2019 on the monitoring of the presence of acrylamide in certain foods”, 2019 European Commission, “EU SCIENCE HUB: Standardized methods for process contaminants” Food Packaging Forum, “Californian District Court holds acrylamide lawsuits”, April 2021 N. Cahill, Federal Judgeorders pause of California lawsuits over Cancer warning labels, 2021
Pathogens
Moulds & yeasts: Rice, bread, Fruit Juice, Bakery cake
