Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by different types of fungi as secondary metabolites. They form in conducive conditions of temperature and moisture.
The most extensively studied mycotoxins are those produced by the moulds Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium and Claviceps. Over 900 mycotoxins are currently known, and their number continues to rise.
Mycotoxins are thermostable and grow on crops (‘field mycotoxins’) or during storage (‘storage mycotoxins’).
‘Modified‘ or ‘masked/hidden‘ mycotoxins are metabolites of the parent mycotoxin formed in the plant, e.g. by conjugation with polar compounds as a result of plant metabolism. Hidden forms can be disrupted upon digestion, leading to the release of the unchanged parent forms in the gastrointestinal tract.
Mycotoxin
Fungi (main)
Type
FUMONISINS B1+B2
F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum
Field
DEOXYNIVALENOL (DON)+ D3G*, 15Ac-DON*
F. graminearum, F. culmorum
ZEARALENONE (ZEN)+ αZELG*, ZEN14G*
F. graminearum, F. culmorum, F. crookwellense
BEAUVERICIN (BEA)
Beaveria bassiana Fusarium spp.
ENNIATINS (ENN)
F. avenaceum, F. tricinctum, F. equiseti
MONILIFORMIN (MON)
F. proliferatum
* examples of masked / modified mycotoxins
Mycotoxin
Fungi
Type
AFLATOXINS
A. flavus, A. parasiticus
Field & Storage
ALTERNARIA TOXINS
Alternaria
OCHRATOXIN A (OTA)+ α-OTA*
A. ochraceus, A. carbonarius, A. niger, A. westerdijkiae, A. steynii, P. verrucosum
Storage
PATULIN
Penicillium, Aspergillus
CITRININ
Penicillium, Aspergillus and Monascus
ERGOT ALKALOIDS
Claviceps
* examples of masked / modified mycotoxins
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EFSA, “Explains risk assessment: Acrylamide in food”, June 2015 EFSA CONTAM, “Scientific Opinion on acrylamide in food”, June 2015 Sum of Us, “Acrylamide levels in food: Passing the hot potato”, November 2016 European Commission, “Regulation (EU) 2017/2158: mitigation measures and benchmark levels for the reduction of the presence of acrylamide in foods”, November 2017 European Commission, “RASFF – Food and Feed Safety Alerts”, [website] Specific analysis by Mérieux NutriSciences (Safety HUD) Food Drink Europe, “Toolbox 2013”, December 2013 European Commission, “Commission Recommendation 2010/307/EU”, June 2010 European Commission, “Commission recommendation on investigations into the levels of acrylamide in food 2013/647/EU”, November 2013 Food Drink Europe, 15th edition of industry wide Acrylamide Toolbox, March 2019 European Commission, “Commission Recommendation (EU) 2019/1888 of 7 November 2019 on the monitoring of the presence of acrylamide in certain foods”, 2019 European Commission, “EU SCIENCE HUB: Standardized methods for process contaminants” Food Packaging Forum, “Californian District Court holds acrylamide lawsuits”, April 2021 N. Cahill, Federal Judgeorders pause of California lawsuits over Cancer warning labels, 2021
EFSA, “Explains risk assessment: Acrylamide in food”, June 2015 EFSA CONTAM, “Scientific Opinion on acrylamide in food”, June 2015 Sum of Us, “Acrylamide levels in food: Passing the hot potato”, November 2016 European Commission, “Regulation (EU) 2017/2158: mitigation measures and benchmark levels for the reduction of the presence of acrylamide in foods”, November 2017 European Commission, “RASFF – Food and Feed Safety Alerts”, [website] Specific analysis by Mérieux NutriSciences (Safety HUD) Food Drink Europe, “Toolbox 2013”, December 2013 European Commission, “Commission Recommendation 2010/307/EU”, June 2010 European Commission, “Commission recommendation on investigations into the levels of acrylamide in food 2013/647/EU”, November 2013 Food Drink Europe, 15th edition of industry wide Acrylamide Toolbox, March 2019 European Commission, “Commission Recommendation (EU) 2019/1888 of 7 November 2019 on the monitoring of the presence of acrylamide in certain foods”, 2019 European Commission, “EU SCIENCE HUB: Standardized methods for process contaminants” Food Packaging Forum, “Californian District Court holds acrylamide lawsuits”, April 2021 N. Cahill, Federal Judgeorders pause of California lawsuits over Cancer warning labels, 2021
Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance
Parasites
Anisakis
Various (toxoplasma, cryptosporidium, echinococcus)
Cryptosporidium
Cyclospora
Trichinella
Toxocara
Tremadodes
Virus
Norovirus
Avian influenza (HPAI)
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis E
Foodborne
Coronavirus
Congo hemorrhagic fever virus
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus Rotavirus
Tick-borne encephalitis
Avian and Swine Flu
Mycotoxins
Aflatoxins
Altenaria toxins
Citrinin
DON
Ergot alkaloids
Fumonisins
Fusarium toxins
Ochratoxin A
Patulin
Trichotecenes (T2, HT2)
Zeralenone
Mixed mycotoxins
Masked mycotoxins
Cocktail mycotoxins effects (DON, TC) and various food genotoxins
Metals
Met2:
Aluminium
Antimony
Arsenic
Arsenic (inorganic)
Barium
Chrome
Heavy metals
Mercury
Methyl-Mercury (MeHg)
Nickel
Tin
Mixed metals
Metals
* Emerging topic reports
Aluminium
Arsenic
Arsenic (inorganic)*
Barium
Cadmium*
Copper
Heavy metals
Lead
Mercury
Methyl- Mercury
Nickel
Tin
Tin (inorganic)
Food Contact Materials
* Emerging topic reports
Metals
Bisphenols*
Melamine
MOH (MOSH and MOAH)
NIAS*
Phthalates*
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)*
Primary aromatic amines (PAA)
Global migration
Other substances*
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
* Emerging topic reports
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAs) [PFAS and PFOS]*
Risk assessment/management
Risk assessment methodologies
Risk management
Biological risks
Plant protection products
Chemical risks
Monitoring programs
Novel food and new materials and technologies
Ingredients or materials
GMO
Insect
Cell-based foods
Ingredients or materials
Algae
Food fraud and adulteration
Authenticity
Fraud
Food composition and risks associated with “healthier” diets
